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By Brian Figeroux, Esq. | Editorial Credit: spatuletail / shutterstock.com 

Malcolm X was a complex and transformative figure in the struggle for civil rights and black liberation in the United States. His early experiences of racial violence, imprisonment, and radicalization through the Nation of Islam (NOI) shaped his initial worldview, but it was his later break with the NOI and pilgrimage to Mecca that defined his ultimate legacy.

Malcolm X was one of the most prominent and controversial figures of the American civil rights movement. Born Malcolm Little on May 19, 1925, in Omaha, Nebraska, he grew to become a revolutionary leader whose views on racial justice, black empowerment, and civil rights evolved over time. Unlike other figures in the civil rights movement, such as Martin Luther King Jr., Malcolm X’s approach was seen as more militant, emphasizing self-defense, black pride, and a willingness to achieve equality by “any means necessary.” His complex life, ideology, and eventual assassination on February 21, 1965, had a profound impact on the movement for racial equality and left an enduring legacy.

Early Life and Influences

Malcolm Little was born into a world marked by racial violence and discrimination. His father, Earl Little, was a preacher and an outspoken follower of Marcus Garvey, the leader of the Universal Negro Improvement Association (UNIA) who advocated for the return of African Americans to Africa and the establishment of black self-determination. Earl Little’s Garveyist beliefs were dangerous during this time, and the family was constantly harassed by white supremacists, including the Ku Klux Klan. Malcolm’s father was killed under suspicious circumstances in 1931, an event that profoundly affected young Malcolm.

Malcolm’s mother, Louise Little, struggled to care for her children after Earl’s death and eventually suffered a mental breakdown, leading to her institutionalization. Malcolm and his siblings were split up and placed in foster homes, marking the beginning of a tumultuous childhood. Malcolm excelled academically but dropped out of school after a teacher told him that becoming a lawyer was “no realistic goal for a n*****.” This comment shattered Malcolm’s belief in the American educational system and fueled his growing disillusionment with white society.

Life of Crime and Imprisonment

After leaving school, Malcolm drifted into a life of petty crime, moving to Boston and then Harlem. During this period, Malcolm engaged in gambling, drug dealing, robbery, and pimping. He was eventually arrested in 1946 for burglary and sentenced to a lengthy prison term. It was during his incarceration that Malcolm underwent a profound transformation.

In prison, Malcolm was introduced to the teachings of the Nation of Islam (NOI), a black nationalist and religious movement led by Elijah Muhammad. The NOI preached that white people were inherently evil, that blacks were the original people of the world, and that the separation of races was necessary for black empowerment. While in prison, Malcolm converted to Islam, abandoned his last name “Little,” which he saw as a slave name, and adopted “X” as a symbol of his lost African ancestry.

Rise to Prominence in the Nation of Islam

Upon his release from prison in 1952, Malcolm X became one of the most visible and vocal ministers of the Nation of Islam. He quickly rose through the ranks due to his charisma, intelligence, and dedication to the movement’s cause. His fiery rhetoric and uncompromising stance on black self-determination made him a compelling figure in the early civil rights struggle.

Malcolm’s teachings during this period emphasized several key ideas:

1. Black Nationalism: Malcolm X advocated for black political and economic control over black communities. He believed that African Americans should build their own schools, businesses, and institutions to free themselves from dependence on white society.
2. Self-Defense: Unlike Martin Luther King Jr., who preached nonviolence and civil disobedience, Malcolm X believed that black people had the right to defend themselves “by any means necessary.” He argued that African Americans should arm themselves and protect their communities against racist violence.
3. Criticism of Integration: Malcolm was critical of the mainstream civil rights movement’s focus on integration. He saw integration as a flawed goal because it required African Americans to conform to white society’s standards and values. Instead, he promoted racial separation and the establishment of a self-sufficient black nation.

Malcolm’s popularity within the Nation of Islam and the broader black community soared. He became a frequent speaker at universities, churches, and political gatherings, and his debates with civil rights leaders like Bayard Rustin and James Farmer brought him to national prominence.

Break with the Nation of Islam

Despite his success, tensions between Malcolm X and Elijah Muhammad began to grow in the early 1960s. These tensions were partly due to ideological differences, but also personal and organizational conflicts. Malcolm X became increasingly aware of Elijah Muhammad’s alleged moral failings, particularly his involvement in extramarital affairs, which contradicted the strict moral code preached by the Nation of Islam.

Malcolm was also frustrated by the Nation’s reluctance to engage directly in the civil rights movement. While Malcolm’s message resonated with the anger and frustration of many African Americans, the Nation of Islam avoided direct involvement in political activism, focusing instead on spiritual and moral uplift. This led to a growing divide between Malcolm X, who wanted to take a more active role in the fight for black equality, and the Nation’s leadership.

In 1963, after President John F. Kennedy’s assassination, Malcolm X made a controversial comment, calling the assassination a case of “the chickens coming home to roost.” This remark was seen as disrespectful and insensitive, and Elijah Muhammad publicly silenced Malcolm for 90 days. During this period, Malcolm decided to break away from the Nation of Islam.

Pilgrimage to Mecca and Transformation

Following his split from the Nation of Islam, Malcolm X embarked on a spiritual and ideological journey that dramatically altered his worldview. In 1964, he made a pilgrimage to Mecca, where he encountered Muslims of all races and nationalities. This experience profoundly changed Malcolm’s perspective on race and Islam. He began to see the potential for racial harmony through the teachings of orthodox Islam and started advocating for a more inclusive form of black nationalism.

Upon his return to the United States, Malcolm X founded the Muslim Mosque, Inc. and the Organization of Afro-American Unity (OAAU). These organizations reflected his evolving views. The OAAU, in particular, aimed to unify African Americans politically, economically, and culturally while advocating for human rights on a global scale. Malcolm X no longer preached racial separation and instead focused on building alliances with people of all races who opposed racism and colonialism.

Malcolm’s shift in ideology made him a target for both the Nation of Islam and the U.S. government. The FBI, which had been monitoring Malcolm for years, became increasingly concerned about his growing influence and his efforts to connect the civil rights struggle in America with anti-colonial movements in Africa and Asia. Meanwhile, the Nation of Islam viewed Malcolm’s breakaway as a betrayal, and tensions between him and his former allies escalated.

Assassination of Malcolm X

Malcolm X was assassinated on February 21, 1965, at the Audubon Ballroom in New York City while giving a speech to an audience of around 400 people. Three gunmen opened fire on Malcolm as he stood at the podium, killing him in front of his wife, Betty Shabazz, and their children. He was 39 years old at the time of his death.

The Assassins and Motives

The three men convicted of Malcolm X’s murder—Talmadge Hayer (also known as Thomas Hagan), Norman 3X Butler, and Thomas 15X Johnson—were all members of the Nation of Islam. Hayer confessed to the murder, but Butler and Johnson maintained their innocence throughout the trial. For years, there were questions and doubts surrounding the investigation, the trial, and the true motive behind the assassination.

There are several key theories about who was responsible for Malcolm X’s assassination and why he was killed:

1. Nation of Islam’s Role: The most widely accepted theory is that members of the Nation of Islam, angered by Malcolm’s defection and his criticism of Elijah Muhammad, ordered his assassination. Malcolm had been receiving death threats from NOI members in the months leading up to his murder, and he openly expressed fear for his life.
2. FBI and COINTELPRO: Another theory points to the involvement of the FBI and its counterintelligence program (COINTELPRO). The FBI had long viewed Malcolm X as a dangerous radical and had kept him under surveillance for years. Some believe that the government either orchestrated or allowed Malcolm’s assassination to take place, as part of a broader effort to neutralize black leaders who were seen as a threat to the status quo.
3. Political and Ideological Rivals: Malcolm’s evolving ideology and his efforts to internationalize the struggle for black liberation may have also made him a target of other political groups, both in the U.S. and abroad. As Malcolm X began to move beyond the Nation of Islam’s teachings and embrace a more global perspective on human rights, he posed a threat to both domestic and international powers.

Investigations and Revisions

For decades, the official account of Malcolm X’s assassination was challenged by scholars, activists, and even members of his family. In 2021, two of the men convicted of his murder—Norman 3X Butler (later known as Muhammad Abdul Aziz) and Thomas 15X Johnson (later known as Khalil Islam)—were exonerated after an extensive re-investigation by the Manhattan District Attorney’s office and the Innocence Project. The investigation found that the FBI and NYPD had withheld key evidence that could have proven their innocence.

Talmadge Hayer, the only person to confess to the murder, had long maintained that Butler and Johnson were not involved in the assassination. The exoneration of Butler and Johnson reignited debates about the true circumstances of Malcolm X’s death, with many still questioning the full extent of the FBI’s involvement and the role of the Nation of Islam.

Legacy of Malcolm X

Despite his assassination, Malcolm X’s legacy endures. His life represents a journey of transformation, from a young man consumed by anger and disillusionment to a global advocate for human rights, justice, and equality. His teachings on black pride, self-defense, and economic independence continue to resonate with African Americans and other marginalized communities around the world.

Malcolm’s shift toward a more inclusive and international approach to racial justice in his later years has inspired generations of activists, particularly within the Black Power movement of the 1960s and 1970s. Figures like Huey P. Newton, Bobby Seale, and Stokely Carmichael drew heavily on Malcolm X’s message of self-determination and resistance to oppression. Even today, Malcolm X’s speeches, writings, and autobiography serve as a source of inspiration for movements like Black Lives Matter, which continue to fight against systemic racism and police violence.

Conclusion

Malcolm X was a complex and transformative figure in the struggle for civil rights and black liberation in the United States. His early experiences of racial violence, imprisonment, and radicalization through the Nation of Islam shaped his initial worldview, but it was his later break with the NOI and pilgrimage to Mecca that defined his ultimate legacy. By the time of his assassination, Malcolm had moved beyond the Nation of Islam’s teachings to embrace a more inclusive vision of racial justice and human rights.

His assassination remains one of the most controversial and debated events in American history, with questions about the involvement of the Nation of Islam, the FBI, and other entities still lingering. Despite his untimely death, Malcolm X’s legacy as a revolutionary leader and advocate for black pride, self-defense, and human rights continues to inspire movements for justice and equality worldwide. His influence has been profound and enduring, making him a pivotal figure in the history of civil rights in America.